William Tecumseh Sherman (1820 –1891) was a prominent Union general during the American Civil War. Sherman rose to prominence for his military strategies, particularly his innovative use of total warfare. He is best known for his “March to the Sea,” a devastating campaign through Georgia in 1864, which aimed to break the Confederacy’s will to fight by targeting civilian infrastructure. His famous quote, “War is cruelty, and you cannot refine it,” encapsulates his approach to warfare. After the Civil War, Sherman served as Commanding General of the Army and played a key role in the Reconstruction period.
Early Life and Career
William Tecumseh Sherman was born on February 8, 1820, in Lancaster, Ohio. His father, Charles Robert Sherman, was a lawyer and Ohio Supreme Court justice, but his sudden death in 1829 left his wife Mary Hoyt Sherman with eleven children and in financial distress. Young William was subsequently raised by family friend Thomas Ewing, a prominent Whig politician and U.S. Senator. Ewing’s influence was significant, providing Sherman with stability and education. Sherman was introduced to a politically influential environment early on, which later shaped his strategic and political acumen.
Sherman entered the United States Military Academy at West Point at the age of 16, where he developed a reputation for his intelligence and discipline. He graduated in 1840, ranking sixth in his class. Although he didn’t graduate at the very top, Sherman showed early promise in engineering and command, skills that would later define his military career. His first assignments were in the South and Midwest, where he engaged in various engineering projects and minor military operations.
Early Military Service
Sherman’s early military career was relatively uneventful, with stints in Florida during the Seminole Wars and in California during the Mexican-American War. Despite not seeing much combat, Sherman gained valuable experience in logistics and military administration. His time in California was marked by a brief period of gold rush fever, where he managed a bank in San Francisco. This experience, while not military, honed his financial and organizational skills.
After resigning from the army in 1853, Sherman pursued various business ventures, including banking and law, with mixed success. His tenure as superintendent of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning & Military Academy (now Louisiana State University) was notable for its demonstration of his organizational talent and forward-thinking views on education and military training. However, the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 dramatically changed his trajectory.
Civil War Service
Early Command
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Sherman returned to military service, initially serving as a colonel in the 13th U.S. Infantry. His early war experiences were challenging; he suffered from anxiety and depression after the First Battle of Bull Run, leading to a temporary removal from command. However, his abilities soon caught the attention of higher-ups, and he was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers.
Sherman’s early campaigns included service under General Ulysses S. Grant during the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson in early 1862. These successful operations boosted Union morale and established a foothold in the Western theater. Sherman’s performance, particularly his organizational skills and ability to execute complex maneuvers, earned him a promotion to major general.
Shiloh and Vicksburg
The Battle of Shiloh in April 1862 was a significant test for Sherman. Caught off guard by a Confederate attack, Sherman managed to rally his troops and hold his position, contributing significantly to the Union’s eventual victory. This battle cemented his reputation as a resilient and determined leader, capable of maintaining composure under intense pressure.
Sherman’s strategic collaboration with Grant was further demonstrated during the Vicksburg Campaign. The fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, after a prolonged siege, was a turning point in the war, giving the Union control over the Mississippi River and effectively splitting the Confederacy. Sherman’s role in these operations was crucial, showcasing his logistical expertise and ability to execute protracted campaigns.
Chattanooga and Atlanta Campaigns
Following the success at Vicksburg, Sherman was promoted to command of the Army of the Tennessee. His next major campaign was the relief of Chattanooga in late 1863, where he played a key role in the decisive battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. These victories opened the gateway to the deep South, paving the way for Sherman’s most famous campaign: the Atlanta Campaign.
In May 1864, Sherman embarked on his campaign to capture Atlanta, a vital industrial and railroad hub for the Confederacy. His strategy involved flanking maneuvers and relentless pressure on Confederate forces, commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston and later General John Bell Hood. The capture of Atlanta in September 1864 was a major Union victory and had profound political implications, boosting Northern morale and contributing to President Abraham Lincoln’s re-election.
March to the Sea
Sherman’s “March to the Sea” is perhaps his most famous military operation. After burning much of Atlanta to deny its resources to the Confederates, Sherman led his troops on a 300-mile march to Savannah, employing a strategy of total war. This involved destroying infrastructure, confiscating supplies, and disrupting the Southern economy and civilian morale. The march demonstrated Sherman’s belief in the necessity of breaking the South’s will to fight, targeting not just its military forces but also its economic base and psychological resilience.
The march ended with the capture of Savannah in December 1864. Sherman’s forces then turned northward, conducting operations through the Carolinas with the same strategic intent. His actions in this campaign were controversial, earning both condemnation for their harshness and praise for their effectiveness. The strategy of total war he employed had lasting implications for military theory and practice.
Final Campaigns and the End of the War
In early 1865, Sherman’s forces continued their advance through the Carolinas, aiming to join Grant’s forces in Virginia. His campaigns in this period were characterized by swift movements and the ability to live off the land, further demonstrating his logistical acumen. Sherman’s negotiations with Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston for the surrender of Confederate forces in the Carolinas in April 1865 were a significant moment in the closing days of the war.
Sherman’s terms of surrender were initially lenient, aiming for a swift and peaceful reconciliation. However, they were rejected by the U.S. government, leading to a revised agreement more in line with the harsher terms imposed by Grant on Robert E. Lee. Sherman’s actions during this period underscored his pragmatic approach to warfare and post-war reconstruction.
Post-War Career and Legacy
Military Reconstruction
After the war, Sherman remained in the army, serving as commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi and later as Commanding General of the United States Army, a position he held from 1869 to 1883. His tenure was marked by efforts to implement Reconstruction policies in the South, manage Indian Wars in the West, and reorganize the army to meet peacetime needs.
Sherman’s approach to Reconstruction was pragmatic and focused on maintaining order and stability. He was wary of the political complexities and sought to avoid entanglement in the more contentious aspects of Reconstruction politics. His handling of the Indian Wars was controversial, reflecting the harsh and often brutal policies of the U.S. government towards Native American populations during this period.
Writings and Memoirs
Sherman is also known for his memoirs, published in 1875 and revised in 1886. His writings offer a detailed account of his military campaigns and personal reflections on the war and its aftermath. The memoirs are regarded as one of the most important firsthand accounts of the Civil War, providing insights into his strategic thinking and leadership style. Sherman’s forthright and often blunt writing style mirrored his approach to command, characterized by directness and clarity of purpose.
Legacy and Impact
William Tecumseh Sherman’s legacy is multifaceted. He is remembered as one of the foremost Union generals of the Civil War, whose strategies and operations had a profound impact on the outcome of the conflict. His advocacy of total war and his conduct during the March to the Sea have been subjects of extensive analysis and debate. While some view his actions as necessary for achieving Union victory and hastening the end of the war, others criticize them for their harshness and impact on Southern civilians.
Sherman’s influence extends beyond the Civil War. His ideas on total war and the use of psychological warfare have been studied and applied in various military contexts since. His emphasis on logistics, mobility, and the integration of military and political objectives remain relevant in modern military strategy.
Sherman’s post-war career and his contributions to the professionalization of the U.S. Army also left a lasting mark. His efforts to modernize the army and adapt it to the needs of a changing nation helped shape the development of the American military in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.