Set, also known as Seth, is one of the most complex and controversial deities in ancient Egyptian mythology. He is often depicted as the god of chaos, storms, deserts, and war, a figure embodying both destruction and disorder. Despite being regarded as a force of chaos, Set also had essential roles in maintaining the balance of the cosmos, representing a duality that was central to Egyptian thought.
Set’s mythological background stretches far into Egypt’s pre-dynastic period, and over time, his character evolved through various interpretations, embodying both protector and destroyer. To understand Set in the broader context of ancient Egyptian religion, it’s crucial to examine the cultural, religious, and historical factors that shaped his mythology.
The earliest known references to Set are found in the early dynastic period of Egypt (circa 3100 BCE), where he was revered as the god of Upper Egypt. He was represented as a powerful and fierce protector of the pharaoh and the kingdom. Set’s animal form is mysterious and unique, known as the “Set animal,” with features that are not found in any known species, blending traits of various animals such as the aardvark, donkey, or jackal. This ambiguity reflects Set’s complex and often contradictory nature.
In contrast to many other Egyptian deities, Set was not easily categorized as purely good or evil. Early on, Set was associated with kingship, strength, and protection. He was linked to the pharaohs, believed to offer divine protection during battle. His might was admired, and he was thought to guard the sun god Ra during his nightly journey through the underworld, defending him from the serpent Apophis, the embodiment of chaos. In this role, Set’s power and aggression were channeled toward preserving cosmic order.
However, as the myths evolved, so did Set’s portrayal. The mythological rivalry between Set and his brother Osiris, one of the most important and dramatic stories in Egyptian mythology, cast Set as a villainous figure. Osiris was the god of the afterlife, resurrection, and fertility, and his gentle, orderly nature contrasted sharply with Set’s chaotic tendencies. The myth tells of Set’s jealousy and desire for power, leading him to murder Osiris in a treacherous act. Set’s plan involved tricking Osiris into lying in a coffin, which Set then sealed and cast into the Nile, leading to Osiris’s death.
Osiris’s wife, Isis, and their son Horus, ultimately avenged Osiris’s murder, but this act set off a legendary battle between Set and Horus for control of the throne of Egypt. The conflict between Set and Horus symbolizes the struggle between chaos and order, with Horus representing rightful kingship, light, and order, while Set embodied the disruptive forces that threaten stability.
The epic rivalry between Set and Horus is detailed in the “Contendings of Horus and Set,” a series of battles and contests that determined who would ascend to the throne. These stories, which include a wide range of trials such as physical combat and magical duels, present Set as an aggressive and cunning figure. In some versions, Set temporarily seizes the throne, while in others, Horus ultimately triumphs. Horus’s victory over Set became symbolic of the triumph of order over chaos, and it was a significant mythological foundation for the concept of the divine kingship in Egypt.
Set’s role as a villainous figure grew in prominence, especially during the New Kingdom period (circa 1550–1070 BCE), when he became closely associated with the concept of evil and foreignness. His connection to the desert, a place of danger and desolation, emphasized his association with hostility and destruction. Set was also linked to foreign lands and peoples, particularly the Hyksos, a foreign dynasty that ruled Egypt for a period, further stigmatizing his image.
Despite this negative portrayal, Set remained an important figure in Egyptian religion, and his ambivalence continued to be reflected in certain aspects of worship. In some regions, especially in Upper Egypt, Set was still honored as a protector and was invoked for his strength and ferocity. The pharaohs of Egypt often claimed to embody the qualities of both Horus and Set, balancing the need for order and the necessity of force.
Interestingly, Set’s role in the protection of Ra and his nightly battle against the serpent Apophis suggests that his chaotic nature was not purely destructive. Instead, Set’s chaos was sometimes necessary to maintain the cosmic balance. The ancient Egyptians believed that the world was in a constant state of flux between order (ma’at) and chaos (isfet), and Set, despite his role as the god of chaos, played a part in keeping these forces in check. This paradox is a hallmark of Egyptian religious thought, where gods often embodied multiple, seemingly contradictory aspects.
The duality of Set’s nature is further evident in his worship. In some periods, particularly during the Ramesside period (circa 1292–1077 BCE), Set was venerated by the pharaohs, who saw him as a powerful ally in maintaining their rule. The warrior-pharaohs of the New Kingdom, such as Ramesses II, invoked Set’s name as a protector in battle, and several rulers even incorporated Set’s name into their own, such as Seti I. This era saw a resurgence in Set’s importance as a protector of the state, even as his mythological character as Osiris’s murderer remained prominent.
The demonization of Set became more pronounced during the later periods of Egyptian history, particularly in the first millennium BCE. Set’s association with foreign invaders, including the Persians and later the Greeks and Romans, solidified his image as a god of chaos and disorder. His temples were neglected, and his worship diminished significantly during these times. By the Greco-Roman period, Set was often equated with the Greek god Typhon, a monstrous figure associated with storms and destruction, further cementing his negative portrayal.
Despite this shift in perception, Set’s legacy continued to influence Egyptian culture. His role in the cosmic struggle between chaos and order persisted in Egyptian thought, reflecting the Egyptians’ deep understanding of the complexity of the universe. Set’s mythology highlights the ancient Egyptians’ recognition that chaos was an inherent part of existence and that even the most destructive forces could have a purpose in the grand scheme of the cosmos.
Set’s story also had a lasting impact on later mythologies and religious traditions. His role as the murderer of Osiris and his conflict with Horus bears similarities to other mythological struggles, such as the battles between good and evil found in many religious traditions. The themes of fraternal rivalry, betrayal, and redemption present in the Osiris myth resonate with universal human experiences, making Set a timeless symbol of both the destructive and necessary aspects of chaos.