Lithuanian mythology is an ancient belief system that reflects the traditions, worldview, and spiritual understanding of the Lithuanian people before their Christianization in the 14th and 15th centuries. It is one of the last European pagan mythologies to be replaced by Christianity, and remnants of its gods, spirits, and legends continued to influence folk beliefs well into the modern era. Although much of it has been lost over time due to the lack of early written records, what remains offers a fascinating glimpse into the beliefs of the Balts, of which the Lithuanians are a part.
Lithuanian mythology is largely polytheistic and animistic, meaning it involves a belief in multiple deities and spirits associated with nature and the cosmos. The early Lithuanians believed that the world around them was imbued with supernatural powers, and their gods and spirits often represented aspects of nature, such as the sky, earth, sun, moon, wind, and fire. As in many ancient cultures, the connection between humans and the environment was considered deeply spiritual.
The most prominent figure in Lithuanian mythology is Dievas, a god whose name means “god” in the Baltic languages. Dievas is considered the supreme deity and a sky god who oversees order and justice. He is often compared to the Proto-Indo-European god of the sky, reflecting a shared ancestry with other Indo-European mythologies such as those of the Greeks, Romans, and Hindus. Dievas, however, is somewhat remote and abstract in comparison to other Lithuanian deities, suggesting that his role may have diminished over time as other, more accessible gods became more central to daily worship.
Perkūnas, the god of thunder, is perhaps the most important and widely revered deity in Lithuanian mythology. He is a powerful and tempestuous figure associated with storms, rain, and fertility. Perkūnas is often depicted wielding an axe or a hammer, symbols of his power to strike down enemies and cleanse the world with thunderbolts. As the bringer of rain, he is essential to agricultural fertility, and his thunderclaps are seen as expressions of divine anger or approval. Perkūnas’ role in Lithuanian mythology is analogous to that of Thor in Norse mythology or Zeus in Greek mythology, and he is one of the most active gods in legends, often fighting against chaotic forces that threaten the balance of the world.
The earth goddess Žemyna is another central figure in Lithuanian mythology, embodying the fertile soil and nurturing power of the earth. She is the protector of all living things, particularly plants and crops, and is invoked during sowing and harvest rituals to ensure a bountiful yield. Žemyna is also connected to birth and fertility, and her name is derived from the Lithuanian word for earth, “žemė.” Offerings of bread, milk, and grain were traditionally made to her to seek her blessing for the health of the land and the people who depend on it.
Another important deity is Saule, the sun goddess, who is associated with warmth, light, and life. She is a nurturing and caring figure who travels across the sky each day in a chariot, bringing light and warmth to the world. Saule is often depicted as a motherly figure who looks after the well-being of her children—the plants, animals, and humans who depend on her light to survive. In Lithuanian folklore, Saule is sometimes depicted as weeping tears of amber, which is a valuable and symbolic material in Baltic culture. The daily journey of the sun across the sky was believed to reflect the eternal cycle of life, death, and rebirth, and Saule’s role as the sun goddess made her a central figure in agricultural and seasonal rituals.
Lithuanian mythology also features a moon god, Mėnulis, who is associated with the phases of the moon and time. Mėnulis is sometimes depicted as a rival or companion to Saule, and their relationship is the subject of various legends. In one version, Saule and Mėnulis are married, but their relationship is tumultuous. Mėnulis falls in love with Aušrinė, the morning star, and Saule punishes him for his infidelity. As a result, Mėnulis is perpetually scarred, representing the waxing and waning of the moon. This myth reflects the ancient Lithuanian understanding of cosmic cycles and the interplay between light and darkness.
Lithuanian mythology is also rich in various spirits and lesser deities who inhabit the natural world and interact with humans in both beneficial and harmful ways. One of the most prominent classes of spirits is the Laumės, female nature spirits who are often associated with water, forests, and fertility. Laumės are typically portrayed as beautiful, otherworldly women with long hair, and they are both helpful and dangerous depending on how they are treated. They are known to assist with childbirth, weaving, and other domestic tasks, but they can also bring misfortune to those who disrespect them or violate natural taboos. The Laumės are sometimes likened to the Greek nymphs or Slavic rusalki, reflecting their deep connection to nature and its untamed, unpredictable forces.
The concept of the “home spirit” is also central to Lithuanian belief. The Aitvaras is a household spirit who can bring both good and bad fortune. In one form, the Aitvaras appears as a bird, often depicted as a rooster or a dragon-like creature, who steals goods and wealth from others and brings them to the household it protects. In exchange, the Aitvaras requires offerings of food, usually milk or bread. Although this spirit can enrich a family, it is also mischievous and can bring trouble if not properly appeased. The Aitvaras is one example of the many spirits who were believed to interact with humans in everyday life, influencing their fortune and well-being.
The Vėlės, spirits of the dead, also play a significant role in Lithuanian mythology and folklore. The Vėlės were thought to linger near their earthly homes after death, especially if they had unfinished business or were improperly buried. Rituals to honor and appease the dead were an important part of Lithuanian spiritual life, as it was believed that the Vėlės could either protect or harm the living depending on how they were treated. The festival of Vėlinės, which takes place in late autumn, is dedicated to honoring the dead and ensuring their peaceful rest. This tradition echoes the broader Indo-European belief in ancestral spirits and the importance of maintaining a connection between the living and the deceased.
Lithuanian legends and folktales also feature a variety of heroic figures and mythical creatures. One of the most famous is the tale of Eglė, the Queen of Serpents, a tragic story that has many variations across Baltic and Slavic cultures. In this legend, Eglė, a young woman, marries a serpent king named Žilvinas after a series of events that involve a promise and transformation. Eglė eventually has to return to her human family, but they trick her into revealing how to summon Žilvinas. The family kills him, and in response, Eglė and her children are transformed into trees, symbolizing eternal sorrow and the cycle of life and death. This story reflects themes of loyalty, transformation, and the deep connection between humans and nature that pervades Lithuanian mythology.
Another well-known figure in Lithuanian folklore is Jūratė, the sea goddess, who is associated with the Baltic Sea and its treasures. According to one legend, Jūratė lived in an amber palace at the bottom of the sea and fell in love with a mortal fisherman named Kastytis. Their love enraged Perkūnas, who destroyed Jūratė’s palace and chained her to the ruins. It is said that Jūratė’s tears, made of amber, continue to wash up on the shores of the Baltic Sea to this day. This myth not only explains the natural occurrence of amber but also reflects the tension between gods and mortals, as well as the theme of forbidden love.
Lithuanian mythology also contains a rich tradition of seasonal rituals and festivals that were tied to the agricultural calendar and the changing of the seasons. Many of these festivals have pre-Christian origins and were dedicated to ensuring fertility, prosperity, and protection for the community. One of the most important festivals was Kupolė, which was celebrated around the summer solstice. During Kupolė, people would gather flowers and herbs believed to have magical properties, light bonfires, and participate in rituals that honored the sun goddess Saule and sought her blessings for the upcoming harvest. Another important festival was Užgavėnės, a pre-Lenten carnival that involved wearing masks, dancing, and feasting to chase away the spirits of winter and welcome the arrival of spring.
Christianity, which officially reached Lithuania in 1387, gradually supplanted the old pagan beliefs, but many elements of Lithuanian mythology survived in folk traditions, rituals, and stories passed down through generations. The Catholic Church often incorporated or adapted these beliefs, blending pagan and Christian practices in ways that allowed the old gods and spirits to persist in more symbolic or covert forms. For example, certain Christian saints became associated with former pagan deities, and traditional rituals continued to be practiced alongside Christian rites.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, during a period of national awakening, there was a revival of interest in Lithuanian mythology and folklore. Scholars, poets, and artists sought to reclaim and celebrate the nation’s pagan past as a source of cultural identity. This movement led to the collection and preservation of many folktales, songs, and rituals that might otherwise have been lost. Today, Lithuanian mythology remains a subject of fascination, not only for scholars but also for those interested in the spiritual and cultural heritage of Lithuania.