Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who led India’s non-violent independence movement against British rule. Born Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, he advocated for civil rights and freedom through non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi’s principles of Satyagraha (truth and non-violence) inspired global movements for civil rights and social change. His leadership was instrumental in India achieving independence in 1947. Despite facing imprisonment and immense challenges, Gandhi remained committed to his ideals. He is revered as the “Father of the Nation” in India and an enduring symbol of peace and non-violent resistance worldwide.
Early Life and Education
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, later known as Mahatma Gandhi, was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, a coastal town in present-day Gujarat, India. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, was the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar state, a position that brought respect and influence within the community. Gandhi’s mother, Putlibai, was a deeply religious woman who adhered to the tenets of Vaishnavism, a sect of Hinduism. She was also influenced by Jain traditions, which preached non-violence, fasting, and vegetarianism.
Gandhi was the youngest of his parents’ four children. He had a relatively uneventful childhood, marked by an average academic record and a strong inclination towards honesty and integrity, values instilled in him by his mother. From a young age, Gandhi showed a keen interest in religious matters, influenced by the diverse religious environment of his household. He was exposed to Hinduism, Jainism, Islam, and Christianity, which later shaped his inclusive philosophy.
At the age of 13, Gandhi was married to Kasturba Makhanji, who was also 13, in an arranged marriage, a common practice in India at the time. The couple eventually had four sons: Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas, and Devdas. Despite the early marriage, Gandhi continued his education, moving to different schools as his father’s job required the family to relocate frequently.
In 1888, at the age of 18, Gandhi left for London to study law at University College London. This move marked a significant turning point in his life. In London, Gandhi struggled to adjust to Western customs and culture. He adopted a vegetarian lifestyle, influenced by a vow to his mother and the teachings of the London Vegetarian Society, which he joined. His time in London also introduced him to various philosophical works, including those of Leo Tolstoy and Henry David Thoreau, which significantly shaped his later thoughts on non-violence and civil disobedience.
Gandhi’s experiences in London broadened his worldview and exposed him to Western political thought and legal traditions. He studied diligently, aiming to become a barrister and serve his community in India. After completing his studies, Gandhi was called to the bar in June 1891. Shortly thereafter, he returned to India, eager to apply his newfound knowledge and skills.
Gandhi in South Africa
Upon his return to India, Gandhi faced difficulty establishing a successful law practice. His introverted nature and lack of courtroom experience hindered his early legal career. In 1893, he accepted a year-long contract to work for an Indian firm in Natal, South Africa. This experience proved transformative.
South Africa exposed Gandhi to the harsh realities of racial discrimination. He witnessed and personally experienced the prejudice and injustice faced by Indian immigrants under British colonial rule. A pivotal moment occurred when Gandhi was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg for refusing to move from a first-class compartment, despite holding a valid ticket. This incident ignited his resolve to fight against racial discrimination.
In South Africa, Gandhi developed and refined his philosophy of Satyagraha (truth-force or soul-force), a method of non-violent resistance. He led several campaigns for Indian rights, including the opposition to a law that required all Indians to carry identification passes. Through these movements, Gandhi emerged as a leader capable of mobilizing masses through peaceful means. His success in South Africa laid the groundwork for his future role in India’s struggle for independence.
During his 21 years in South Africa, Gandhi achieved significant milestones in his fight against racial discrimination. He established the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 to unite the Indian community and fight for their rights. In 1906, he launched a mass protest against the Transvaal government’s discriminatory laws, leading to the first Satyagraha campaign. Gandhi’s leadership and ability to mobilize the Indian community through non-violent resistance were instrumental in achieving concessions from the authorities.
Gandhi’s experiences in South Africa also led to personal growth and self-discovery. He embraced a simple lifestyle, practicing self-discipline and austerity. He experimented with communal living, establishing the Phoenix Settlement near Durban in 1904 and the Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg in 1910. These settlements served as centers for training and practicing Satyagraha, emphasizing the values of self-reliance, non-violence, and community living.
Return to India and Rise as a Leader
Gandhi returned to India in 1915, where he was warmly welcomed as a national hero. He was deeply influenced by the ideas of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, an Indian nationalist leader, and spent his initial years understanding the socio-political landscape of the country. He traveled extensively, observing the plight of the rural poor and the impact of British rule on Indian society.
In 1917, Gandhi took up his first major campaign in India, the Champaran Satyagraha, to address the grievances of indigo farmers in Bihar who were subjected to oppressive plantation policies. His success in Champaran demonstrated the power of non-violent protest and won him widespread acclaim. Gandhi’s ability to connect with the masses and his emphasis on self-reliance and non-violence resonated deeply with the Indian people.
Following Champaran, Gandhi led the Kheda Satyagraha in 1918, supporting farmers in Gujarat who were unable to pay taxes due to crop failure. These early victories solidified Gandhi’s reputation as a champion of the oppressed and set the stage for his leadership in the national movement. Gandhi’s methods of mass mobilization, civil disobedience, and non-cooperation became the cornerstone of the Indian independence struggle.
Non-Cooperation Movement
The year 1919 marked a turning point in Gandhi’s political career. The British government passed the Rowlatt Act, which authorized the government to imprison anyone suspected of sedition without trial. Gandhi called for a nationwide protest, known as the Non-Cooperation Movement, urging Indians to withdraw from British institutions, including schools, courts, and government services.
The movement gained immense popularity, with millions of Indians participating in boycotts and protests. Gandhi’s emphasis on non-violence and self-reliance resonated with people across the country. He encouraged Indians to spin their own cloth (khadi) and boycott British goods, promoting economic self-reliance and national pride. The Non-Cooperation Movement marked a significant escalation in the struggle for independence, demonstrating the power of mass mobilization and non-violent resistance.
However, the movement faced a major setback with the violent incident at Chauri Chaura in 1922, where protesters clashed with police, resulting in the deaths of 22 policemen. Disturbed by the violence, Gandhi called off the movement, emphasizing that non-violence was a fundamental principle that could not be compromised. He was arrested and sentenced to six years in prison, serving two years before being released on health grounds.
Despite the setback, the Non-Cooperation Movement had a profound impact on Indian society. It awakened a sense of national consciousness and unity, transcending regional, religious, and caste differences. Gandhi’s leadership and the movement’s success in mobilizing millions of Indians demonstrated the potential of non-violent resistance in challenging British colonial rule.
Civil Disobedience and Salt March
In 1930, Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement against the British salt tax, which imposed a heavy burden on the poor. He organized the famous Salt March, a 240-mile march from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi, where he symbolically made salt from seawater, defying British law. The march garnered massive support and international attention, highlighting the injustice of British policies and inspiring millions to join the cause.
The Civil Disobedience Movement marked a significant escalation in the struggle for independence. Gandhi was arrested multiple times, and thousands of Indians were imprisoned for participating in the protests. Despite the repression, the movement succeeded in mobilizing a broad section of Indian society and significantly weakened British authority.
The Salt March and the subsequent Civil Disobedience Movement had far-reaching effects. It demonstrated the power of non-violent resistance and civil disobedience in challenging oppressive laws and policies. The movement also attracted global attention, drawing support and admiration from international figures and strengthening the resolve of Indians to achieve independence.
Quit India Movement
The outbreak of World War II in 1939 presented a new challenge. Initially, Gandhi and the Indian National Congress supported the British war effort, hoping that it would lead to Indian independence. However, the lack of a clear commitment from the British government led to growing discontent. In 1942, Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement, demanding an immediate end to British rule.
Gandhi’s call for “Do or Die” inspired widespread civil disobedience and protests across the country. The British responded with a massive crackdown, arresting Gandhi and other leaders, and using force to suppress the movement. Despite the repression, the Quit India Movement demonstrated the intensity of Indian resolve for independence and made it clear that British rule in India was no longer tenable.
The Quit India Movement marked the final phase of the struggle for independence. It galvanized the Indian population and intensified the demand for British withdrawal. The movement also highlighted Gandhi’s unwavering commitment to non-violence, even in the face of severe repression and violence. His leadership during this period solidified his status as the foremost leader of the Indian independence movement.
Gandhi’s Philosophy and Principles
Gandhi’s philosophy was rooted in the principles of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha (truth-force). He believed that non-violence was not merely a tactic but a way of life, emphasizing love and compassion for all beings. Gandhi’s commitment to non-violence extended to his personal habits, including a vegetarian diet and simple living.
Satyagraha, Gandhi’s cornerstone principle, was grounded in the idea that truth and non-violence are inseparable. For Gandhi, truth was the ultimate reality, and non-violence was the means to discover and express this truth. He believed that by adhering to non-violence, individuals and communities could transform conflicts and injustices into opportunities for reconciliation and healing.
Gandhi also advocated for Swaraj (self-rule) and Sarvodaya (welfare of all). He envisioned a decentralized society based on self-sufficient village communities, where individuals lived in harmony with nature and each other. His economic philosophy, known as Swadeshi, encouraged the use of locally made goods and the rejection of foreign products, promoting economic self-reliance and national pride.
Religion played a central role in Gandhi’s life and philosophy. He drew inspiration from Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, and Islam, emphasizing the underlying unity of all religions. Gandhi’s inclusive approach to spirituality and his emphasis on moral integrity and ethical conduct made him a moral leader and a symbol of universal values.
Gandhi and Social Reforms
Beyond the struggle for political independence, Gandhi was deeply committed to social reform. He fought against untouchability, advocating for the rights and dignity of the so-called “untouchables,” whom he referred to as Harijans (children of God). He encouraged the upliftment of marginalized communities and worked to integrate them into mainstream society. Gandhi’s efforts included promoting education, improving sanitation, and encouraging the use of khadi (hand-spun cloth) to provide employment and self-reliance.
Gandhi also promoted women’s rights and emphasized the importance of education and economic independence for women. He believed in the empowerment of women as essential for the progress of society and encouraged their participation in the freedom movement. Gandhi’s wife, Kasturba, was a staunch supporter and active participant in his campaigns, often leading women’s marches and advocating for social reforms.
In addition to these efforts, Gandhi was a strong advocate for communal harmony. He worked tirelessly to bridge the gaps between different religious and ethnic communities in India. During times of communal violence, Gandhi would often go on hunger strikes to appeal for peace and unity, emphasizing that true independence could not be achieved without internal harmony.
Gandhi’s Views on Modern Civilization and Technology
Gandhi had a critical view of modern Western civilization, which he believed was driven by materialism and exploitation. In his seminal work, “Hind Swaraj,” written in 1909, Gandhi criticized the industrialization and mechanization of society, arguing that they led to dehumanization and environmental degradation. He advocated for a return to simpler, more sustainable ways of living that prioritized human values and ecological balance.
Gandhi’s economic model emphasized local production and self-sufficiency. He promoted the use of traditional crafts and industries, such as hand-spinning and weaving, as a means to empower rural communities and reduce dependence on foreign goods. While Gandhi was not opposed to all forms of technology, he believed that technology should serve humanity and not the other way around. He envisioned a society where technological advancements complemented, rather than replaced, human labor and creativity.
Final Years and Assassination
The end of World War II and the changing political landscape brought India’s independence within reach. However, the demand for a separate Muslim state led to the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947. Gandhi was deeply saddened by the communal violence that accompanied partition, and he worked tirelessly to promote peace and reconciliation between Hindus and Muslims.
Gandhi’s efforts to foster unity often placed him at odds with both Hindu and Muslim extremists. His insistence on non-violence and his attempts to address the grievances of all communities made him a target for those who opposed his inclusive vision. Despite the threats to his life, Gandhi continued to advocate for peace and justice, demonstrating his unwavering commitment to his principles.
On January 30, 1948, Gandhi was assassinated in New Delhi by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist who opposed Gandhi’s efforts to reconcile with Muslims. Gandhi’s death was a profound loss for India and the world. His assassination underscored the deep divisions within Indian society but also solidified his legacy as a martyr for peace and non-violence.
Legacy and Global Impact
Gandhi’s legacy extends far beyond the borders of India. His philosophy of non-violence and civil disobedience influenced numerous movements for civil rights and social justice around the world. Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Cesar Chavez drew inspiration from Gandhi’s methods in their own struggles for equality and justice.
Martin Luther King Jr., the leader of the American civil rights movement, was deeply influenced by Gandhi’s principles of non-violence and civil disobedience. King’s campaigns against racial segregation and for voting rights in the United States echoed Gandhi’s strategies of peaceful protest and mass mobilization. King credited Gandhi with teaching him the power of non-violent resistance, which became the cornerstone of the civil rights movement.
Nelson Mandela, who fought against apartheid in South Africa, also drew inspiration from Gandhi. Mandela’s commitment to non-violence, even in the face of severe repression, reflected Gandhi’s influence. While Mandela eventually took up arms as a last resort, his long-term vision for a just and inclusive society was deeply rooted in Gandhi’s teachings.
Cesar Chavez, the American labor leader and civil rights activist, adopted Gandhi’s principles in his struggle for the rights of farmworkers. Chavez’s use of non-violent tactics, including strikes, boycotts, and fasting, mirrored Gandhi’s methods and helped secure better working conditions and wages for agricultural workers.
In India, Gandhi is revered as the “Father of the Nation,” and his principles continue to inspire contemporary social and political movements. His birthday, October 2, is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti and is also recognized as the International Day of Non-Violence by the United Nations.
Gandhi’s writings, speeches, and actions have left an indelible mark on the world. His vision of a just and peaceful society, rooted in non-violence, truth, and compassion, remains a guiding light for future generations. Gandhi’s life exemplifies the power of moral courage and the enduring strength of the human spirit in the face of oppression and injustice.
Gandhi’s Influence on Environmentalism
Gandhi’s emphasis on simplicity, self-reliance, and sustainability has also had a lasting impact on environmental movements around the world. His critique of industrialization and consumerism resonates with contemporary environmentalists who advocate for sustainable living and ecological balance.
Gandhi’s vision of self-sufficient village communities and his promotion of traditional crafts and industries align with modern concepts of localism and sustainable development. His belief in living in harmony with nature and minimizing harm to the environment is reflected in the principles of ecological sustainability and conservation.
Gandhi’s teachings have inspired various environmental movements, including the Chipko Movement in India, where villagers, particularly women, hugged trees to prevent them from being cut down. This non-violent resistance to deforestation echoed Gandhi’s principles and highlighted the connection between social justice and environmental protection.
Gandhi’s Economic Vision
Gandhi’s economic philosophy, centered on Swadeshi and self-reliance, offers an alternative to the dominant models of economic development. He envisioned an economy that prioritized human well-being and social equity over profit and growth. Gandhi’s ideas challenge the conventional economic paradigms that often lead to exploitation and inequality.
His advocacy for small-scale, community-based production and his emphasis on local economies resonate with contemporary movements for economic justice and sustainability. Gandhi’s belief in the dignity of labor and the importance of economic self-sufficiency provides a framework for creating inclusive and resilient economies.
Criticisms and Controversies
While Gandhi is widely celebrated for his contributions to India’s independence and his philosophy of non-violence, his life and ideas have not been without criticism. Some historians and activists have questioned his views on race, caste, and gender.
In South Africa, Gandhi’s early writings and actions have been criticized for not fully challenging the racial hierarchy and for making derogatory remarks about Black Africans. However, it is also noted that Gandhi’s views evolved over time, and his later work focused on fighting racial discrimination more broadly.
Gandhi’s stance on caste has also been a subject of debate. While he advocated for the abolition of untouchability and worked towards integrating Dalits into society, some critics argue that he did not go far enough in challenging the caste system itself. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent Dalit leader and contemporary of Gandhi, had significant disagreements with Gandhi on how to address caste discrimination.
Gandhi’s views on women’s roles have also been scrutinized. While he supported women’s rights and encouraged their participation in the independence movement, some of his ideas about women’s roles in society and their primary responsibilities have been seen as traditional and limiting.
Gandhi’s Personal Life and Practices
Gandhi’s personal life and practices were deeply intertwined with his public philosophy. He adhered to a strict regimen of diet, exercise, and meditation, believing that personal discipline was essential for moral and spiritual development. Gandhi’s commitment to celibacy, which he adopted later in life, was part of his broader pursuit of self-control and purity.
Gandhi’s ashrams, such as the Sabarmati Ashram and Sevagram Ashram, were centers for practicing his principles of communal living, self-sufficiency, and non-violence. These ashrams served as training grounds for Satyagrahis and as models of the society Gandhi envisioned.
Gandhi’s experiments with truth, as he called them, extended to various aspects of his life. He continuously sought to align his actions with his principles, often engaging in self-reflection and self-criticism. His autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, provides an intimate look into his struggles, triumphs, and the evolution of his beliefs. Gandhi’s openness about his personal shortcomings and his relentless pursuit of truth have inspired many to live more authentically and ethically.