Hatshepsut (circa 1507–1458 BCE) was an ancient Egyptian queen who later ruled as pharaoh during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She is one of the most famous female rulers in ancient Egyptian history and is known for her successful reign, which lasted around two decades. Hatshepsut notably promoted trade, expeditionary journeys, and architectural projects, including the construction of the famous mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri near Thebes. She was often depicted wearing the traditional pharaoh’s kilt and crown, emphasizing her authority and legitimacy as ruler. Despite attempts to erase her from history by later pharaohs, Hatshepsut’s achievements and legacy endure as a testament to her remarkable reign and the significant role she played in ancient Egyptian history.
Early Life and Ascension to the Throne
Hatshepsut was born around 1507 BCE to Pharaoh Thutmose I and his principal wife, Queen Ahmose. Her father’s reign was marked by significant military conquests and substantial building projects, setting a strong precedent for Hatshepsut’s future endeavors. Hatshepsut was well-educated, receiving instruction in a variety of subjects, including literature, philosophy, and religion, which were traditionally reserved for royal children.
Hatshepsut married her half-brother, Thutmose II, in accordance with Egyptian royal custom, which aimed to keep the bloodline pure. This marriage produced a daughter, Neferure, but no male heir. Thutmose II’s reign was relatively short, and upon his death around 1479 BCE, the throne passed to his young son by a secondary wife, Thutmose III. As Thutmose III was still a child, Hatshepsut assumed the role of regent.
Initially, Hatshepsut governed as regent for Thutmose III, but within a few years, she took the unprecedented step of declaring herself pharaoh. This move was radical and required significant political acumen and religious justification. To legitimize her rule, Hatshepsut claimed divine birth, stating that the god Amun had impregnated her mother, and she was thus the chosen ruler.
Reign as Pharaoh
Hatshepsut’s reign lasted for about 22 years, during which she adopted all the regalia and symbols of kingship, including the false beard traditionally worn by male pharaohs. She even took on a masculine form in statues and reliefs, though inscriptions often acknowledged her as a woman. This dual representation highlights her unique approach to kingship, balancing traditional male imagery with her female identity.
Building Projects
One of the most enduring aspects of Hatshepsut’s legacy is her extensive building program. She embarked on numerous construction projects that demonstrated her power and piety, the most famous of which is her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri. This magnificent structure, designed by her chief architect Senenmut, is considered one of the architectural masterpieces of ancient Egypt. The temple, known as Djeser-Djeseru (“Holy of Holies”), is a terraced complex that harmonizes with the surrounding landscape and features colonnades, chapels, and sanctuaries dedicated to various gods.
Hatshepsut also restored and built temples throughout Egypt, including significant additions to the temple complex at Karnak. She erected obelisks, such as the pair at Karnak, one of which still stands as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk. These obelisks were inscribed with texts that emphasized her divine birth and right to rule, further cementing her legitimacy.
Trade and Diplomacy
Hatshepsut is renowned for re-establishing and expanding trade networks that had been disrupted during the Second Intermediate Period. One of her most famous expeditions was to the Land of Punt, a region believed to be located along the coast of the Red Sea, in modern-day Somalia or Eritrea. This trading mission brought back valuable goods such as myrrh, frankincense, gold, ivory, and exotic animals. The expedition is depicted in vivid detail on the walls of her temple at Deir el-Bahri, showcasing the wealth and prosperity of her reign.
Additionally, Hatshepsut fostered diplomatic relationships with neighboring regions, maintaining peace and stability. She sent emissaries to the Levant and Nubia, ensuring that Egypt’s influence and trade connections remained strong. Her reign is often noted for its relative peace and absence of major military campaigns, contrasting with the more aggressive policies of her predecessors and successors.
Religious Innovations
Hatshepsut placed a strong emphasis on religious and ideological aspects of her rule. She closely associated herself with the god Amun, the chief deity of Thebes, to solidify her divine right to rule. Her temple at Deir el-Bahri included a sanctuary dedicated to Amun, and she promoted the god’s cult extensively.
One of her notable religious innovations was the introduction of the concept of Maatkare, meaning “Truth is the Soul of Ra.” This title underscored her commitment to Maat, the divine order and truth, positioning her as a guardian of cosmic balance. Hatshepsut’s dedication to religious rituals and temple-building projects reinforced her legitimacy and helped secure the loyalty of the priesthood.
Legacy and Succession
Hatshepsut’s death around 1458 BCE remains somewhat mysterious, with no definitive cause recorded in historical texts. After her death, Thutmose III assumed full control as pharaoh and embarked on a campaign to erase her memory from history. This effort included defacing her monuments, removing her name from king lists, and reattributing her achievements to other rulers. The reasons for this posthumous erasure are debated among scholars but may have been motivated by a desire to reassert traditional male succession or by political rivalry.
Despite these attempts at erasure, Hatshepsut’s legacy endured. Her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri continued to stand as a testament to her architectural and artistic achievements. Additionally, her reign set a precedent for female leadership in Egypt, influencing subsequent female rulers such as Cleopatra VII.
Hatshepsut’s contributions to Egyptian history were re-discovered in the 19th century by European archaeologists, most notably by the work of Jean-François Champollion and later by Howard Carter. Modern scholarship has restored Hatshepsut to her rightful place as one of Egypt’s greatest pharaohs, recognizing her as a capable and innovative ruler whose achievements rival those of any male pharaoh.