David Hume (1711-1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, and essayist, widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. Born in Edinburgh, Hume is best known for his empirical and skeptical approach to philosophy, which challenged traditional notions of causation, knowledge, and religion. His major works, including “A Treatise of Human Nature” and “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,” argued that human knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experiences. Hume’s ideas on empiricism and naturalism profoundly influenced later thinkers, including Immanuel Kant and the development of modern philosophy. Besides his philosophical contributions, Hume also wrote extensively on history and political theory, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence and rationality. His legacy endures through his profound impact on philosophy, particularly in the areas of epistemology, ethics, and the philosophy of religion.
Early Life and Education
David Hume was born on May 7, 1711, in Edinburgh, Scotland. He was the second son of Joseph Home, a modestly wealthy lawyer, and Katherine Falconer. The family estate was Ninewells, near Berwickshire, which provided a comfortable but not luxurious upbringing. When Hume was just two years old, his father passed away, leaving his mother to raise him and his siblings. Despite these early challenges, Hume’s family placed a high value on education.
Hume entered the University of Edinburgh at the age of twelve, a common practice at the time. There, he studied a wide range of subjects, including classical literature, philosophy, and mathematics. Although he did not receive a formal degree, his time at the university was formative. Hume developed an early interest in philosophy and history, drawing inspiration from the works of John Locke, Isaac Newton, and George Berkeley.
Early Career and “A Treatise of Human Nature”
After leaving the university, Hume initially pursued a career in law, as his family desired. However, his true passion lay in philosophy and literature. In his early twenties, Hume experienced a personal crisis, often described as a “disease of the learned,” characterized by intense anxiety and depression. This period of introspection and reflection led him to abandon his legal studies and fully commit to philosophy.
In 1734, Hume moved to France, where he spent three years living in La Flèche, a small town with a Jesuit college. During this time, he wrote his first major work, “A Treatise of Human Nature,” which he completed in 1737. Hume published the “Treatise” in three parts between 1739 and 1740, under the subtitle “Being an Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects.”
“A Treatise of Human Nature” is now considered one of the most important works in Western philosophy, but it initially received little attention and was not well-received by critics. Hume famously described the book as having “fallen dead-born from the press.” Despite this initial disappointment, the “Treatise” laid the groundwork for Hume’s future philosophical inquiries and established his reputation as a profound thinker.
Essays and the Enquiry
Undeterred by the lackluster reception of his “Treatise,” Hume continued to refine his ideas and sought to make his philosophy more accessible to the public. In 1741 and 1742, he published two volumes of “Essays, Moral and Political,” which were well-received and helped to establish his reputation as a writer and philosopher. These essays covered a wide range of topics, including politics, economics, and aesthetics, and showcased Hume’s clear and engaging prose style.
In 1748, Hume published “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,” a more concise and accessible version of the first book of the “Treatise.” The “Enquiry” was better received than the “Treatise” and is now one of Hume’s most widely read works. In this book, Hume elaborates on his empirical approach to philosophy, emphasizing the importance of experience and observation in the formation of ideas. He also introduces his famous problem of induction, questioning the justification for our beliefs about cause and effect.
Hume’s empirical approach led him to a form of skepticism, particularly concerning religious and metaphysical claims. He argued that many such claims were not grounded in empirical evidence and were therefore unjustified. This skeptical stance would later be a central theme in his work on religion.
Later Works and “An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals”
Hume continued to publish influential works throughout his life. In 1751, he released “An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,” which he considered to be his best work. This book is a revised and refined version of the second book of the “Treatise,” focusing on moral philosophy. Hume argues that morality is based on human sentiment rather than reason, emphasizing the role of feelings such as sympathy and benevolence in moral judgments.
In 1752, Hume published “Political Discourses,” which included essays on economics and political theory. These essays were well-received and further established Hume’s reputation as a leading thinker. His economic writings, in particular, were influential in the development of classical economics.
Hume’s History of England
In addition to his philosophical works, Hume made significant contributions to the field of history. In 1754, he began publishing “The History of England,” a multi-volume work that covers the history of England from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688. The first volume, which covered the reigns of James I and Charles I, was initially controversial due to its perceived Tory bias. However, subsequent volumes were better received, and the entire work eventually became a best-seller.
Hume’s “History of England” was notable for its narrative style and its emphasis on the interplay of political, economic, and social factors. It remained the standard work on English history for many years and cemented Hume’s reputation as one of the leading historians of his time.
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
Throughout his life, Hume maintained a deep interest in religion and its philosophical implications. In 1779, three years after his death, his “Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion” were published posthumously. In this work, Hume explores various arguments for and against the existence of God through a series of dialogues between fictional characters. The “Dialogues” are notable for their skeptical approach to religious claims and their use of the dialogue form to explore complex philosophical issues.
Hume’s treatment of religion was controversial, and he faced criticism from religious authorities throughout his life. However, his work on religion has had a lasting impact and is considered a key contribution to the philosophy of religion.
Hume’s Influence and Legacy
David Hume’s contributions to philosophy, history, and economics have had a profound and lasting impact. His empirical approach to philosophy laid the groundwork for later developments in empiricism and skepticism, influencing thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, and Charles Darwin. Hume’s problem of induction remains a central topic in the philosophy of science, and his work on causation has shaped contemporary debates in metaphysics.
In moral philosophy, Hume’s emphasis on sentiment and human nature influenced the development of ethical theories, including utilitarianism and emotivism. His writings on economics, particularly his essays on money and trade, contributed to the development of classical economics and influenced economists such as Adam Smith.
Hume’s historical works set new standards for historical writing and established him as one of the leading historians of his time. His narrative style and emphasis on the interplay of political, economic, and social factors influenced later historians and helped to shape the field of historiography.
Personal Life and Character
Despite his profound intellectual achievements, Hume remained a modest and amiable person throughout his life. He was known for his wit and charm, and he maintained friendships with many of the leading intellectuals of his time, including Adam Smith, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Benjamin Franklin. Hume never married, and his personal life was characterized by a commitment to his work and a dedication to intellectual inquiry.
Hume spent his later years in Edinburgh, where he continued to write and engage in intellectual discussions. He died on August 25, 1776, at the age of 65. In his final years, Hume faced his mortality with the same calm and rational demeanor that characterized his philosophical outlook. His “My Own Life,” a short autobiographical essay written shortly before his death, reflects his serene acceptance of the end of life and his commitment to philosophical reflection.