Anubis is an ancient Egyptian god associated with mummification and the afterlife. Often depicted as a man with a jackal’s head, he played a crucial role in guiding souls to the afterlife and overseeing the weighing of the heart ceremony, which determined one’s fate in the afterlife. Anubis was revered as a protector of graves and a guardian against evil spirits. His worship dates back to the earliest periods of Egyptian civilization, and he remained an important deity throughout Egypt’s history, symbolizing the transition from life to death and the hope for a safe passage to the afterlife.
Origins and Evolution
Anubis, known as Inpu or Anpu in ancient Egyptian, has roots that trace back to the earliest periods of Egyptian history. His name is thought to derive from the word “inepu,” which means “to decay,” reflecting his connection to death and the process of embalming. Anubis’s prominence is evident in the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE), where he was initially regarded as the principal god of the dead, overseeing burial rites and funerary practices.
In the Pyramid Texts, the oldest religious texts in Egypt dating back to the Old Kingdom, Anubis is frequently mentioned as a guardian and guide for the deceased. His role evolved over time, especially with the rise of Osiris, the god of the afterlife, who became the more prominent figure in Egyptian mythology. Anubis’s functions were redefined, positioning him as a caretaker and assistant to Osiris.
Iconography and Symbolism
Anubis is most commonly depicted as a man with the head of a black jackal, or sometimes as a full jackal. The choice of a jackal is not arbitrary; these animals were often seen prowling around cemeteries and tombs, leading the ancient Egyptians to associate them with the dead and the protection of graves. The color black, symbolizing regeneration, life, and the fertile Nile soil, further reinforced Anubis’s role in the cycle of death and rebirth.
Anubis’s iconography includes several key symbols such as the flail and crook, traditional symbols of power and kingship often seen in the hands of pharaohs and gods, representing Anubis’s authority over the dead. The ankh, a symbol of life, is frequently associated with gods who had roles in the afterlife, highlighting Anubis’s connection to eternal life. Additionally, the scales of justice are integral to the “Weighing of the Heart” ceremony, where Anubis would weigh the heart of the deceased against the feather of Ma’at (truth) to determine their fate in the afterlife.
Functions and Roles
Anubis’s roles in ancient Egyptian religion were multifaceted and essential to the culture’s understanding of death and the afterlife. He served as the guardian of the necropolis, protecting cemeteries and tombs from desecration and evil forces. Anubis was believed to roam the burial grounds, safeguarding the resting places of the deceased. He was intimately connected with the embalming process. Priests wearing masks of Anubis would oversee the mummification, ensuring that the body was properly prepared for its journey to the afterlife. This role is vividly depicted in various tomb paintings and carvings.
Anubis guided the souls of the dead through the underworld to the Hall of Two Truths, where the crucial judgment of the deceased’s heart took place. He was considered a psychopomp, a conductor of souls to their final destination. One of Anubis’s most crucial roles was during the “Weighing of the Heart” ceremony. In this process, depicted in the “Book of the Dead,” Anubis would place the deceased’s heart on one side of a scale and the feather of Ma’at on the other. If the heart was lighter or equal in weight to the feather, the soul was deemed worthy and allowed to enter the afterlife. If not, it would be devoured by Ammit, a fearsome deity.
Anubis in Mythology
Several myths and stories highlight Anubis’s significance in Egyptian religion. One of the central myths of ancient Egypt involves Osiris, his wife Isis, and his brother Set. When Set murdered Osiris and dismembered his body, it was Anubis who helped Isis gather the pieces and embalmed Osiris, thereby inventing the process of mummification. This act established Osiris as the god of the afterlife and cemented Anubis’s role as the god of mummification and protector of the dead.
Another tale involves Anubis and his brother Bata. Betrayed by his wife, who falsely accused Bata of assault, Anubis initially sought to kill his brother. However, upon learning the truth, Anubis killed his wife and restored his relationship with Bata. This story reflects themes of loyalty, betrayal, and the complexities of familial bonds, showcasing Anubis’s human-like qualities despite his divine nature.
Worship and Temples
Anubis was widely worshipped throughout Egypt, with his cult centers primarily located in regions associated with burial and funerary practices. One of the most significant sites dedicated to Anubis was Cynopolis, “City of the Dogs,” in Upper Egypt. Here, extensive cemeteries for canines were found, reflecting the reverence given to Anubis’s sacred animal. The Temple of Anubis at Abydos, another crucial site, was an essential pilgrimage destination for those seeking to ensure a safe passage for their loved ones into the afterlife.
The rituals and offerings to Anubis were elaborate, often involving the preparation of elaborate funerary goods and the recitation of spells to invoke his protection. Priests of Anubis played a vital role in these ceremonies, ensuring that the deceased were properly honored and prepared for their journey to the afterlife. The masks and representations of Anubis used in these rituals were crafted with meticulous care, reflecting the deep respect and fear associated with this deity.
Anubis in Art and Literature
Anubis’s image and symbolism permeated various forms of ancient Egyptian art and literature. His depictions in tomb paintings, reliefs, and statues were not merely artistic expressions but were believed to possess protective qualities. These representations often showed Anubis in the act of mummification, guiding the dead, or performing the “Weighing of the Heart” ceremony.
In literature, Anubis appears in a variety of texts, including the “Book of the Dead,” where he is a central figure in the journey of the soul through the afterlife. This funerary text provided the deceased with spells and instructions to navigate the challenges of the underworld, with Anubis often portrayed as a compassionate guide and protector. The “Coffin Texts” and the “Pyramid Texts,” earlier precursors to the “Book of the Dead,” also contain numerous references to Anubis, underscoring his long-standing importance in Egyptian theology.
Anubis in the Greco-Roman World
The influence of Anubis extended beyond the borders of ancient Egypt, particularly during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. As Greek and Roman cultures interacted with Egypt, Anubis was incorporated into their pantheons and religious practices. In the Greco-Roman world, Anubis was often syncretized with Hermes, the Greek god who guided souls to the underworld. This fusion resulted in the composite deity Hermanubis, who embodied the functions of both gods.
The worship of Anubis continued in Roman Egypt, with his image appearing on various artifacts, including coins, amulets, and sculptures. Roman writers such as Plutarch and Apuleius mentioned Anubis in their works, indicating his enduring presence in the cultural and religious consciousness of the time.
Anubis in Modern Culture
Anubis’s legacy persists in modern culture, where he continues to be a symbol of death and the afterlife. He is a popular figure in literature, film, and video games, often depicted as a powerful and enigmatic guardian of the dead. His imagery has been adapted in various ways, from the traditional jackal-headed god to more contemporary interpretations.
In popular media, Anubis has appeared in films such as “The Mummy” series, where his role as a protector and guide of the dead is dramatized. Video games like “Assassin’s Creed: Origins” feature Anubis as a character, drawing on his rich mythological background to enhance the narrative. These modern representations, while varied, continue to reflect the awe and mystery that Anubis inspired in the ancient world.