Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) was a Danish philosopher, theologian, and writer, often considered the father of existentialism. His work focused on themes such as faith, individuality, and the human condition. Kierkegaard’s influential texts include “Fear and Trembling” and “Either/Or,” where he explores the complexities of choice, anxiety, and personal commitment. He was critical of the established church and Hegelian philosophy, emphasizing subjective experience and the importance of personal belief and authenticity. Kierkegaard’s ideas have had a profound impact on modern philosophy, theology, psychology, and existentialist thought.
Early Life and Background
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard was born on May 5, 1813, in Copenhagen, Denmark, to Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard and Ane Sørensdatter Lund Kierkegaard. He was the youngest of seven children, though only two of his siblings, Søren and his older brother Peter Christian, survived into adulthood. The Kierkegaard family was devoutly Christian, a background that deeply influenced Søren’s intellectual and spiritual development.
Michael Kierkegaard, a wealthy wool merchant, was a deeply religious man who imposed a strict Lutheran discipline on his household. He had a significant influence on Søren, both intellectually and emotionally. Michael’s stern and melancholic disposition, combined with a sense of guilt and a strong awareness of mortality, left an indelible mark on Søren’s psyche. Michael believed he had committed a great sin in cursing God during his youth, which he thought had brought misfortune upon his family. This sense of inherited sin and guilt was a recurring theme in Søren’s later works.
Education and Early Influences
Kierkegaard attended the School of Civic Virtue in Copenhagen and later the University of Copenhagen, where he studied theology, philosophy, and literature. He was a brilliant student but often at odds with the formal education system. His father’s influence loomed large, and Søren struggled to reconcile his own intellectual pursuits with his father’s rigid religiosity.
During his university years, Kierkegaard was influenced by the works of Hegel, Schelling, and other German idealists. However, he soon became disenchanted with Hegelian philosophy, which he found overly abstract and detached from individual existence. This disenchantment led him to seek a philosophy that addressed the individual’s subjective experience and personal relationship with God.
Regine Olsen and Personal Turmoil
A pivotal event in Kierkegaard’s life was his relationship with Regine Olsen. In 1837, he met Regine, and in 1840, he proposed to her. However, Kierkegaard soon became overwhelmed by doubts and fears about the marriage. He believed that his melancholic and introspective nature made him unsuitable for marital happiness. Moreover, he felt a calling to devote himself entirely to his philosophical and theological work.
In 1841, Kierkegaard broke off the engagement, an act that caused him immense personal anguish and left Regine heartbroken. This incident profoundly affected Kierkegaard’s subsequent writings, particularly his exploration of themes such as love, despair, sacrifice, and the individual’s struggle with ethical and religious demands.
Authorship and Major Works
Kierkegaard’s literary career began in earnest in the early 1840s. His first major work, “Either/Or” (1843), was a philosophical treatise exploring the aesthetic and ethical modes of life. Through a series of pseudonymous characters, Kierkegaard examined the choices individuals make and the implications of those choices for their lives. The work reflects his own struggle between the aesthetic enjoyment of life and the ethical commitment to a higher purpose.
Following “Either/Or,” Kierkegaard published a series of significant works, often under various pseudonyms, each representing different perspectives. These works include:
- “Fear and Trembling” (1843): In this work, written under the pseudonym Johannes de Silentio, Kierkegaard explores the story of Abraham and Isaac from the Bible. He delves into the nature of faith, the concept of the “teleological suspension of the ethical,” and the individual’s relationship with God. Kierkegaard presents Abraham as the “knight of faith” who acts beyond the ethical norms out of absolute trust in God.
- “Repetition” (1843): Written under the pseudonym Constantin Constantius, this work examines the concept of repetition as a fundamental aspect of human experience. Through a narrative involving a young man’s failed love affair (a clear parallel to Kierkegaard’s own relationship with Regine), the book contrasts repetition with recollection and explores the possibility of finding meaning in life.
- “Philosophical Fragments” (1844) and “Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments” (1846): These works, attributed to Johannes Climacus, critique Hegelian philosophy and emphasize the subjective nature of truth and the importance of individual faith. The “Postscript” introduces the concept of “subjective truth” and argues that religious faith is not a matter of objective certainty but a personal commitment.
- “The Concept of Anxiety” (1844): Under the pseudonym Vigilius Haufniensis, Kierkegaard explores the nature of anxiety, particularly in relation to original sin. He suggests that anxiety is a condition of freedom, arising from the individual’s awareness of possibilities and the weight of personal responsibility.
- “Stages on Life’s Way” (1845): This work continues the exploration of the aesthetic, ethical, and religious stages of life, presenting a series of fictional narratives and reflections on love, marriage, and faith.
- “Works of Love” (1847): Published under his own name, this book is a series of reflections on Christian love. Kierkegaard discusses the nature of true love as an unconditional commitment that transcends personal desire and self-interest.
Later Years and Critique of the Church
In the late 1840s, Kierkegaard became increasingly critical of the Danish state church, which he believed had become complacent and corrupt. He launched a series of polemical writings against the church, accusing it of betraying the true spirit of Christianity. This period of his life is marked by the publication of “The Moment” (1855), a series of articles in which he lambasted the church’s hypocrisy and called for a return to authentic Christian faith.
Kierkegaard’s attack on the church was partly motivated by his belief that institutionalized religion had become a hindrance to genuine faith. He argued that true Christianity requires a personal relationship with God, characterized by inwardness and subjectivity, rather than mere adherence to dogma and ritual.
Death and Legacy
Søren Kierkegaard’s health deteriorated in his later years, exacerbated by the physical and emotional strain of his intense intellectual activity. On October 2, 1855, he collapsed on a street in Copenhagen and was taken to a hospital, where he remained until his death on November 11, 1855, at the age of 42. Despite his relatively short life, Kierkegaard left behind a substantial body of work that continues to influence philosophy, theology, and literature.
Kierkegaard’s legacy is multifaceted. He is often regarded as the father of existentialism, a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice. His exploration of subjectivity, anxiety, despair, and faith laid the groundwork for later existential thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, and Karl Jaspers. Additionally, Kierkegaard’s emphasis on the individual’s personal relationship with God has had a lasting impact on Christian theology, particularly in the realm of existentialist theology.
Kierkegaard’s Influence on Modern Thought
Kierkegaard’s influence extends beyond existentialism and theology. His insights into the human condition, the nature of choice, and the complexities of faith resonate with a wide range of disciplines, including psychology, literature, and ethics.
Psychology: Kierkegaard’s exploration of anxiety and despair prefigured many concepts in modern psychology. His idea of anxiety as a condition of freedom and a fundamental aspect of the human experience influenced existential psychology and psychoanalysis. Psychologists such as Rollo May and Viktor Frankl have drawn on Kierkegaard’s insights in their work on existential therapy and the search for meaning.
Literature: Kierkegaard’s use of pseudonyms and his narrative style have had a profound impact on modern literature. His exploration of complex psychological and philosophical themes through fictional characters and dialogues influenced writers such as Franz Kafka, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Albert Camus. These authors were drawn to Kierkegaard’s ability to convey deep existential dilemmas through storytelling.
Ethics: Kierkegaard’s emphasis on personal responsibility and the ethical dimension of choice has been influential in the field of moral philosophy. His critique of societal norms and the call to authentic individual decision-making resonate with contemporary discussions on autonomy and moral integrity.